Focus Groups Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Focus Groups - Essay Example The colours used to identify objects, the tone used to communicate , and the environment in which it is done all are important with teaching a particular subject matter. The method by which an instruction is passed on coupled with the quality of content also has an impressionable impact on understanding capability of the recipient. To support the above hypothesis a study was conducted on two groups of children from kindergarten, each group comprising of 10 children between the age group of the age 4 to 5 years .So that there is minimum disparity in the final results due to the level of understanding among the children of the two groups the IQ of the children in both the groups was almost the same. The main purpose of choosing this segment of kids was their total dependence on their facilitators for explaining the content to them. Unlike a slighter older group who can get study materials from reference libraries and the internet, this group due to their limited exposure, would have minimal external influence on the material they would be taught . Their understanding on the subject matter would depend mainly on the method of instruction, the kind of content and the mediums used to deliver it. The first group ( Group 1) was exposed to Montessori way of education and the second group (Group 2) to the traditional public elementary school way of conducting classes. The experiment was presided over by two experienced teachers. Children from both the groups were to be evaluated on a spelling test of 30, five lettered words which would be conducted after a period of about 20 days. The outcome of the two groups would be evaluated on the average scored, scored by each group. Group 1 was introduced to phonetics through the Montessori method of education which lays more emphasis on child development and the over all build up of the child. Here the children were exposed to phonetics in the play way method which helps them learn the spellings by recognising

BMW Human Resources Policy

BMW Human Resources Policy Organisations, Analysis and Policy REPORT To: Senior Management From: Group Accountant Date: 2nd May 2005 Subject: BMW Organisational Analysis andHuman Resources Policies This report will provide a detailed analysis of BMWscurrent corporate appraisal analysis. This will help to identify the companyscurrent strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This will help thecompanies decision makers understand where the organisation is now. The reportwill also critically evaluate BMWs human resources policy as a key area of theorganisation. We will highlight how BMW has strategically responded to thedrivers for change in terms of its structure, conduct and performance. Finally,offer recommendations for the future development and improvements in humanresource management, and how those will impact on its organisational structure,conduct and performance. Company Background The BMW Group is the only manufacturer of automobiles andmotorcycles worldwide that concentrates entirely on premium standards andoutstanding quality for all its brands and across all relevant segments. With the brands BMW, MINI andRolls-Royce Motor Cars, the BMW Group has been focussing on selected premiumsegments in the international automobile market since the year 2000. In thesucceeding years, the launch of the BMW 1 Series meant an expansion of themodel range in the premium segment of the lower middle class and the BMW 6Series did likewise in the segment of the large CoupÃÆ'Â ©s and Convertibles. TheMINI marque was launched and production began in the Oxford plant in 2001. In2003, the BMW Group assumed marque responsibility for Rolls-Royce Motor Cars.At the same time, the Worldwide Head Office and Manufacturing Plant inGoodwood, GB, was built. ( AnInternal and corporate analysis in terms of strength, weaknesses, opportunitiesand threats (SWOT) will assist in gaining an understanding of where BMW iscurrently in terms of strengths and where improvement is required within thebusiness and what outside environmental threats it may face as well as what newopportunities are available to the company in the short and medium term. Figure 1:BMW SWOT Analysis STRENGTHS Diverse ranges of Products BMW, MINI and Rolls-Royce Strong Cash Flow Position Increase turnover and trading profits Strong Balance Sheet Worlds leading Premium Quality Automobile Manufacturer Brand Awareness Human resources Capabilities to turn resources into advantages OPPORTUNITIES New Products Market shift to globalisation Innovation Alliances Customers demand change to more comfortable and relevantly cheap cars Diversification New Technologies in Automobiles WEAKNESSES Perception of High Prices Customer disinterest Environmental issues: Pollutions Buyer sophistication and knowledge Substitute products or technologies THREATS New existing competition Volatility in Price of Fuel New legislations Consequences of the oil crisis September 11th Economic recession Market shift to globalisation Takeover bids Far-East Automobile companies expansion Extremely high competition for customers and resources The Five Forces Model Figure2: Five Forces Model ACCA Paper 3.5 (2001) Threats from Potential entrants Suppliers Bargaining power Competitive Rivalry Buyers Bargaining power Threats from Substitutes Porterexplains that there are five forces inherent in a market, which will jointlydetermine the intensity of competition and profitability of BMW and theautomobile industry. The first is the threat posed by new entrants, the highcapital expenditure and confidence of customers represent significant barriersto entry and the market is also sensitive to reputation. However, the emergentof low cost manufactures do pose a significant threat (as illustrated by figure2). There is an opportunity in the low price/ low economy (fast) sector. MaybeHyundai or Daewoo could consider introducing a low cost sport saloon. The second is the threats from substitutes, as thereare many make and model of other premium branded cars, hence, Jaguar, MercedesBenz, Audi etc. The third force is the threats from the bargaining power ofbuyers, is this strong for both BMW and the entire automobile industry with alarge number of alternative suppliers, hence, the aggressive pricing strategy.This results in a very str ong competitive rivalry in the industry. This isintensified as a result of little or no differentiation in the basic productoffered. Finally the threats from the suppliers bargaining power, this isfairly low in the automobile industry, due to dual sourcing strategies, using arange of alternative sources of supply for parts. The five forces analysis gives an improved understandingof the degree of competition within the business environment. The analysisshows that the automotive industry is highly competitive, with buyerspossessing and exerting a very powerful influence to the large number ofsubstitute brands available to them. BMW Human Resources Policy In response to a changing business environment BMW isbeing more business and service focus. In the past decade the organisation hasbecome much more proactive, dealing with new concepts to become more serviceand customer focus oriented. The structure of the organisation has beenredefined to deal with the new ways of operating. Organisational structuredefines important relationship within the business for achieving businessobjectives. At the same time it helps to define the new business culture withinBMW. Culture exists with the minds and hearts of BMWs employees andcontributes to business strategies of the organisation. Therefore, BMWs humanresources policies are critical in the organisations structure, conduct andperformance. Competitive pressures on BMW and national economies haveincreased markedly in recent decades. Therefore, organisations are constantlychanging, as powerful entities have arisen at the international level, theEuropean Union being a good example and multinational corporations increasinglydominate particular sectors such as cars. New competitions are emerging andforcing older companies to adopt or reform to survive. Different structuresaffect the way in which human resources are managed. BMW like all otherbusinesses require the same basic human resources activities like recruitment,development and training, appraisal and reward systems, and control andfeedback mechanisms. Organisational structures are influenced by culture.Employees have strong feelings towards the organisations they work for. Germanfirms have inherently a flat, less rigid structures. The McKinsey 7 S modelis often used to identify all the areas that make up an organisation.Structure, Style, Staff are three such areas. BMW has an equal opportunities none sexual discriminatingculture within its organisation. BMW actively supports young female executivesand gives females insight into the field of technology. BMW also offersextensive training for all level of staffs; BMW Groups Trainee PromotionProgramme (TPP) provides the perfect combination of theoretical studies andpractical work. BMW Group trainees receive many benefits in addition to theirpay, other social payments such as holiday and Christmas bonuses, meal andtravelling expenses subsidies, health programme and PC training. BMW claims that it does not see its staff as a cost factorbut as an essential performance factor. Also the employees are referred to asassociates rather that works. BMW in its human resources policy states thatany policy that is not oriented towards its associates will lead to negativecost effects in the long-run. As a future-oriented company, we seek to pursue anexemplary, creative and associate-oriented human resources policy, makingsignificant contributions to business success through our human resourcesactivities. The human resources policy of the BMW Group is an integral featureof our overall corporate policy in both strategic and operative decisions. (Corporate appraisal (or SWOT analysis) consists of the internal appraisal ofthe organisations strength and weaknesses and an external appraisal of theopportunities and threats open to organisations in competition within industry.

T. Coraghessan Boyles The Love of My Life Passage Analysis Essay

That thing in the Dumpster--and he refused to call it human, let alone a baby--was nobody's business but his and China's. That's what he'd told his attorney, Mrs. Teagues, and his mother and her boyfriend,and he'd told them over and over again: I didn't do anything wrong. Even if it was alive, and it was, he knew in his heart that it was, even before the state prosecutor represented evidence of blunt-force trauma and death by asphyxiation and exposure, it didn't matter, or shouldn't have mattered. There was no baby. There was nothing but a mistake, a mistake clothed in blood and mucus. When he really thought about it, thought it through on its merits and dissected all his mother's pathetic arguments about where he'd be today if she'd felt as he did when she was pregnant herself, he hardened like a rock, like sand turning to stone under all the pressure the planet can bring to bear. Another unwanted child in an overpopulated world? They should have given him a medal. (623) In T. Coraghessan Boyle's "The Love of My Life", passage above, we begin to see that there is no regret for the choices made by the characters. Jeremy whose voice we hear in the passage can't even refer to his child as something human. Jeremy views his and china's creation as an IT and he can't seem to grasp the concept that he has done something immoral and wrong. Mistakes are made by many couples and they most likely will choose to deal with them without any outside help some problems need other. Problems begin when the people in the relationship forget to realize when to draw the line and focus on what is truly important, which unfortunately to them might not always be the other person relationship or the relationship itself. When a problem aris... ...serve it? He still couldn't understand. That thing in the Dumpster--and he refused to call it human, let alone a baby. (622-623)" Jeremy had formed the opinion in his psyche that he had done the right thing by getting rid of his child, he began to make justifications for his action in saying that it was just another unwanted child in an overpopulated world. These rationalizations seem to only give Jeremy and China more reasons to not see what they had done as wrong. Consequently at this same time Jeremy is also beginning to discover his relationship has had a severe change which he realizes when China calls him and ask--"I want to see it," she sobbed. "I want to see our daughter's grave."(623)" The mere utterance of this statement seemed to freeze interpretation. Boyle, T.Coraghessan. The Collected Stories of T.Coraghessan Boyle. London: Granta Books, 1998.

Coach of the Army Crew

Army Crew Case Analysis Coach of the Army Crew; Coach P. selected the top eight rowers for the Varsity boat after a long series of objective tests measuring each member’s speed, strength and coordination. The Varsity team had a clear advantage over the Junior Varsity team. So, how could Junior Varsity team beat the Varsity team in two-thirds of the time in practice races? There are obvious reasons behind the bad performance of the Varsity team. Coach P. lacking a leadership couldn’t see the signs of Varsity team having serious problems as a team.The problem with Coach P. ’s coaching mistake started with the team selection process of Varsity team members. He managed to measure individual performances successfully by using ergometer and weight records. However, as important as individual skills were, it was crucial for the eight individual members to be a team and synchronize their rowing. His performance and team building criteria lacked personality factors. Howev er, rowing needs a perfect teamwork and mental strength of the crew members. U. S.Olympic Committee’s research project showed that the master coaches those who were most experienced and successful tended to focus on psychological variables as the most important criteria for a successful crew team whereas novice coaches tended to focus on technique just like Coach P. did. Selecting a team solely dependent on individual technical performance resulted in very serious problems among team members. Coach P. lacking leadership skills had no vision about the team having serious trust and coordination problems.Just before National championships races, he –for the first time- included personality dimensions to analyze the team. It revealed that the Varsity team had no team leaders and had team disrupters instead. He brought in an external party to improve their confidence, concentration and motivation of the Varsity team which the Varsity team labeled it as â€Å"touch-feelyâ⠂¬ . Other than bringing in an external party, he should have acted as a leader and make the best decision for the group by using Rational Decision Making Model steps: first by identifying the problem, generating solutions, selecting the best solution and implementing it.He should have showed a transformation leadership which would increase acceptance and support from the Varsity Team. Each set of the transformational leadership behavior was very crucial for the disrupted team: * Inspirational motivation (establishing a vision using emotion): It is very obvious that the Varsity team had superior performance individually and they can perform much better if they believe in their team. However, they are demotivated and lost their beliefs in the team. Coach P. encouraged competition between JV and V groups which affected Varsity team negatively.Other than creating a tension between teams, he should have motivated each team separately and should have built close relationships with membe rs and provided an open and direct communication with them. * Idealized influence (sacrificing for the greater good): Team disrupters decreased the motivation of the team and the team had no leaders. Coach P. relied on third parties such as Center of Enhanced Performance (CEP) and asked the group â€Å"What is your solution? † other than trying to make the best decision himself and then take the right step.For the greater good of the team, he should have demoted the team disrupters. For the rest of the team she should have worked with each member individually to set their goals and increase their motivation. * Individualized consideration (providing support): The Varsity team’s most important problem is motivation and lacking a team spirit. To overcome this problem, Coach P. should have showed his support and provide open communication with the team. Instead, he tried to find the â€Å"right combination† by switching members of the teams and causing a tension am ong Varsity and JV boats.He should have realized from the very beginning that the problem is not about physical but it was psychological. By trying different combinations, he made the team’s psychology even worse. * Intellectual stimulation (encouraging employees to question the status quo): Coach P. should have let them negotiate and come to an agreement about the situation but it was very late for him to hold a group meeting just before National championships. Coach P. should have realized the trust and coordination problems of the team and should resolve the problems much earlier.As a good leader, he should have built the team depending on both physical and personality factors in the first place. He should have demoted team disrupters for better teamwork and motivation among the rest of the team members. To resolve the conflict between Varsity team, he should have provided a better communication among them. That way, they would have come to an agreement without any support from an external party like CEP. To create a team spirit, he should have done team building games and activities and make them socialize with each other. Both the team members and the coach don’t know and trust each other.Just like basketball coach, Coach K. ’s leadership style he should have been a loved leader who creates personal interaction and drives performance through respect. He should have built trust and respect among teammates and himself. After achieving these goals, it is very important to motivate the team to achieve a better performance. For Varsity team, following Locke’s Goal Setting Theory, creating SMART (goals that are specific in their orientation, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-based) and right level of goals would increase the motivation and effort.Returning to case, Coach P. should not switch Varsity and Junior Varsity boats even though Varsity will perform badly in the Championships. That way, he will show his support and tru st to Varsity team. If he chooses JV team to compete, he might lose the Varsity team forever. He shouldn’t switch team members other than the team disrupters. Varsity boat has a clear advantage over Junior Varsity team but they lacked a teamwork and synergy. As a coach he should make them feel like a team again and perform their best in the Championships.

Gwendolen Fairfax Essay

In Oscar Wilde’s play The Importance of Being Earnest reflected the changing role of Victorian women. The character Gwendolen Fairfax was most like the women of the time. She is much like her mother, Lady Bracknell, who seemed very strong and independent. The women of the Victorian age were interested in educating and improving themselves. Both intellectually and cosmetically, women wanted to be better and have more rights. Gwendolen was a pretentious women who was obsessed with the name of Earnest. She said that she wouldn’t want to marry anyone without that name. Her superficial attitude concerning this is reflective of Victorian times, when middle to upper-class women were most concerned with appearance and reputation. These women felt that it was very important to appear honorable and virtuous, and their husbands had to reflect that image. It was a pretentious attitude of the time. Gwendolen also attended lectures, which was a way of improving herself intellectually. She was a thinking woman, who had her own thoughts. When she gives an opinion she gives it with authority. She is flirtatious with Jack/Earnest and comes off as a woman who expects her own way. She is much like her mother, Lady Bracknell. Lady Bracknell attempts to influence her daughter’s marital decisions, and it is clear that she is most concerned with image as well. Sources say that the ideas of marriage in the Victorian era were less romantic. Marriage served the purpose of a woman being taken care of and having an honorable reputation. Having a husband was very much a status symbol. We can see that even though Jack was lying about his name, he is supposed to be â€Å"Earnest. † The importance of being Earnest as the play title suggests, is actually the importance of maintaining the right image of honor and respectability. The fact that Lady Bracknell was independently in charge of her daughter, shows that women were becoming a bit more free. She was not a single mother, but due to the sickness of the father she was able to do as she pleased and have a say in who her daughter marries. Before this time it was the father who had that right. Women slowly became more and more influential, and her character reflects that. Works Cited Landale, Nacy S.. â€Å"Dirty Ideology and Sexuality among Victorian Women. † Social Science History, 36. 2 (1986): 147-170. JSTOR. 6 Apr. 2007 . Murray, Isobel, ed. Oscar Wilde: The Major Works. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Questia. 6 Apr. 2007 . Nicoll, Allardyce. A History of Late Nineteenth Century Drama, 1850-1900. Vol. 1. Cambridge, England: University Press, 1946. Questia. 6 Apr. 2007 .

The Fall of the Textile Industry in India

The Fall of the Textile Industry in India Free Online Research Papers The industrial revolution took place in 18th to 19th century with impetus from cotton industry. Though raw material for the cotton industry (raw cotton) couldn’t be produced in Britain at all and had to be imported thousand miles from America and later on from Asia. Origin of cotton industry traces back to 17th century. British had to wear uncomfortable clothes made up of either wool or leather in hot summer days. But as cotton clothes were introduced to them which were comfortable to wear in summer, it gained popularity among common people. Demand for printed and painted fabrics rose up and this attractiveness of the comfortable cotton material produced threat in the traditional woolen industry. Hence to squeeze the competition from exported Indian clothes, petition was filled in the parliament. In 1700 an Act was passed against the import of any of such fabric from India, Persia and china. All the goods seized in the process were to be confiscated, sold by auction or re-exported. But the Act could not bring desired result. Consumers were not ready to give up use of imported cotton materials. Many pamphlets were published by representative of woolen industry to prevent consumers from buying those cotton goods. The envy of woolen weavers could not be limited to words and was expressed in the streets via attacking people dressed in cotton material and even the houses with any of such cotton materials found were damaged. However this violence could not hold back the need of people to be clothed in something other than wool or leather. This tremendous violence and protest had to be addressed with new Act of prohibition. However this Act did not impose any ban on trading of cotton fabrics but they had to be kept in the warehouses and re-exported to other parts of the Europe. When the imports from India were restricted, imitators found a golden opportunity to make profit out of depressed demand of consumers. As rightly said, â€Å"Necessity is the mother of invention†, deliberate effort was taken by the carpenter (in absence of engineers) to discover the substitute to the cotton material. Though, replication of years old skills and talent was not that easy. The Lancashire spinners couldn’t reproduce Indian cotton clothes and the fabric spun were too coarse or too weak. This attempt resulted in making material of mixed linen and cotton, linen as warp and the cotton as woof. These mixed materials were not as good as the cotton fabrics; nevertheless they provided a useful substitute to consumers in need. The remarkable skill gifted in the hands of Indian weavers had to be substituted and alternative to human skill was searched for. The petition was again filed saying thousand of workmen would be deprived of work and bread. As a result in 1721, British parliament passed much more comprehensive Act than the older one, according to which anybody found in possession of these fabrics had to bear penalty. The penalty amounted to  £5 for the private individuals and  £20 for merchants. To retain monopoly in the textile industry, traditional woolen industry did almost every thing. They tried to limit the growth of cotton industry in its initial stage. The innovation of spinning mill took more than three decades, when John Wyatt and Lewis Paul developed some type of the spinning mill. This attempt by no possible means got even near to quality of cotton material weaved by Indian weavers. The first invention which was able to make its presence felt was ‘fly shuttle’ by John Kay in 1733 which was the first weaving machine to use steel comb replacing the early wooden combs. But the basic problem with fly shuttle was width of material, which was limited to two arms of a workman. Woolen manufacturers and weaver accused John Kay of depriving daily wage and bread of workmen. Then in 1765, a new innovation of textile machine build up popularly known as Hargreaves’s jenny with eight spindles and these spindles would be increased to many. Since jenny was a simple machine, it did not require setting up special workshop and could be managed by small employers. A single worker could spin threads at once. So jenny raised labor productivity and reduced the cost. Finally in 1767, Arkwright’s water frame was invented. This machine was powered by water springs, required to be situated near the springs and powered by water flow. The invention of Arkwright helped in setting up the factory system. And only at the request of the Richard Arkwright the Act passed in 1721 came to end in 1774. Free trade was emphasized by Ricardo as beneficial for every player in international trade. But this theory of comparative advantage has logical flaw. Let’s see Ricardo’s original example- two countries (Britain and Portugal) and two goods (cloth and wine) model. Let us assume England requires 4 and 2.5 person-days to produce a unit of cloth and a unit of wine while Portugal needs 2 and 1 person-days to produce a unit of cloth and a unit of wine respectively. Further Portugal has 200 person days and Britain has 400 person days. If both the countries dedicate half of person days available, to each of the product then Portugal can produce 50 units of clothes and 100 units of wine and Britain can produce 50 units of clothes and 80 unit of wine. Then Portugal can either produce either 100 units of the clothes or 200 units of wine and Britain can produce either 100 units of clothes or 160 units of wine. So Portugal has absolute advantage in producing both of the goods. For example, Portugal to shift more resources into higher output of clothes the opportunity cost of each extra cloth is two units of wine. For Britain, the same decision has an opportunity cost of 1.6 unit of wine. Therefore, Britain has a comparative advantage in production of cloths. Were Portugal to reallocate resources to wine, the opportunity cost of one extra unit of wine is 0.5 of a unit of cloth. For the Britain the opportunity cost is 0.625 unit of cloth. Thus the Portugal has the comparative advantage in producing wine. Table 1 Person –days per Unit Output Pre-trade output/consumption Good Portugal Britain Portugal Britain Portugal + Britain One unit of cloth 2 4 50 50 100 One unit of Wine 1 2.5 100 80 180 On the other hand if Portugal specializes in producing wine and Britain specialization in producing cloth in that case Portugal can produce 200 units of wine and Britain can produce 100 units of clothes. These countries can benefited through trade, as extra 20 unit of cloth is produced. Table 2 After Specialization output in unit per day Prost-trade consumption Good Portugal Britain Portugal Britain Portugal + Britain Cloth 0 100 50 50 100 Wine 200 0 110 90 200 But the problem of the whole argument is that grapes are required for processing wine but Britain can’t produce grapes in commercial basis. Hence we can’t even identify cost of production of grapes in Britain i.e. can’t define transformation frontier of one good to another. Ricardo’s argument has fallacy in drawing conclusion from invalid premise-â€Å"both the countries can produce both goods†. This type of fallacy in literature of logic is known as ‘converse fallacy of accident’. Ricardo’s argument further has a verbal fallacy. The use of the term ‘grow wine’ is completely a mistake. Since wine needs to be processed from the grapes and grapes are to be grown. It involves two different processes: one is cultivating the grapes and another is processing grapes into wine. Such a crucial distinction was over viewed. Even if we consider Britain can’t produce grapes there is tiny or no possibility in the above example that trade improves consumption pattern in both the countries. Consider the case in which Britain can’t produce grapes then Portugal can produce 50 units of clothes and 100 units of clothes whereas Britain can produce 200 units of clothes. Table 3 Person –days per Unit Output Pre-trade output/consumption Good Portugal Britain Portugal Britain Portugal + Britain One unit of cloth 2 4 50 100 150 One unit of Wine 1 NA 100 0 180 If Portugal, as Ricardo says specializes in producing wine then it can produce 200 units of wine and Britain can produce 100 units of clothes. Post- trade Britain has 50 units of clothes and 100 units of wine to consume whereas Portugal’s situation is same as before. Table 4 After Specialization output in unit per day Prost-trade consumption Good Portugal Britain Portugal Britain Portugal + Britain Cloth 0 100 50 50 100 Wine 200 0 100 100 200 The output of cloth declines by 50 units so there is no vector wise improvement rather Portugal suffers deindustrialization and shift towards export of primary product. Britain enjoys diversified consumption in terms of wine and clothes. If we consider shortage of land in the Portugal then there is possibility of shift in cultivation from food grains to commercial crops (grapes). Thus Portugal will face a shortage in food grains and she may have import food grains too. Situation of Portugal worsens as the effect of specialization and trade. Despite of Portugal’s loss, trade between Portugal and Britain continued for many years due to navigation Act passed where she was compelled to trade with Britain. Similar situation reproduces in India where she suffered deindustrialization in the textile industry. Many writers in the literature believed that reversal in the pattern of trade in cotton textile occurred due to the shift in the terms of trade. Deindustrialization in India as explained by K N chaudhary was due to existence of surplus labour and uncultivable land as comparative advantage assumes full and continuous employment of factors of production. This caused lack of efficiency, limitation of market and little incentive to maximize potential output. Thus India Lost its share of manufacturing output to Britain. Since cotton textile requires raw cotton to produce its output, which is quite impossible to produce in Britain. So the total concept of defining comparative cost is erroneous as in the case of Portugal defined in the example above. The reason for reversal of pattern of trade in cotton textile between Britain and India in the early 19th century lies in the more than 125 years long commercial and discrimination policy followed by British government. Starting from 1700 when first attempt was initiated to ban Indian printed and painted clothes to 1846, they continued to do every thing possible to retain bullion in their own country. Different form of barriers ranging from quantitative restriction to high tariffs was levied on Indian textile. Only under such a harsh commercial policy it was possible for them to copy manufacture of the textiles and reverse the trade pattern. It had nothing to do with the shift in the comparative costs as mentioned by many writers. Even after ban imposed in 1700 and 1721, further they had to impose tariffs. Textile market is segmented and could never be out competed in the entire sector. Additional ad valorem duty was imposed to prevent Indian export to Britain. In 1813 the tariffs we re ranged between 27 to 71 per cent and increased in 1824 to 37-75 per cent and only in 1846 these tariffs were completely abolished. With this discrimination, Britain was not only able to take over the India’s export market but also expanded to India’s own domestic market. Further American civil war (1861-1865) caused cotton prices to rouse high and led Indian farmers to turn towards cultivation of raw cotton. This innovation led fall in cost of textile manufacturers in Britain held back the handloom manufactures in India and were successful to export through out the globe. There was a huge decline in India’s share in world manufacture output. The share in 1750 was 24.5 per cent which declined to 6.9 per cent in 1830. Table 5 Tariff rates for import of muslins, calicoes other cotton clothes manufacturers in Britain Year Tariffs (in %) 1813 27-71 1824 37-75 1830 30-10 1846 Abolished (Source: Tribute transfer and balance of payment, Utsa Patnaik) This discrimination policy displaced hand loom workers and it can be seen in the table below where export of raw cotton was only 4.9 per cent in 1811-12 increased to 21 per cent by 1834-35. Not only the raw cotton but export of other primary commodities like Indigo, sugar etc also increased in significant proportion. The export of piecegoods declines gradually in the early 19th century. In 1811-12 the export share of piecegoods was 33 per cent which decreased by about 19 percent and by the year 1834-35 the export of piecegoods remained only 7 per cent. Between 1813 and 1930 Bengal piece-goods practically disappeared from the investment list of East India Company. Table 7 Indian exports: commodity composition, percentage share of selected items in total value Year Raw cotton Piecegoods Indigo Raw silk Opium Sugar Total 1811-12 4.9 33 18.5 8.3 23.8 1.5 90 1814-15 8 14.3 20 13.3 N.A. 3 58.6 1828-9 15 11 27 10 17 4 84 1834-5 21 7 15 8 25 2 78 (Source: Foreign trade and the balance of payment –K N chaudhary) There was also decline in in the export of cotton piece goods and twist yarn in the first half of the 19th century. Table 8 Annual Export of Indian cotton piece goods and twist yarn: Year Pound 1790-95 to 1803-04  £242 million 1849  £0.69 million The machine made fabrics were cheaper then hand looms fabrics but still complete washout was not possible. The reason for this was that some of the segment could never be produced. Other few reasons were, continued attachment of poor to the coarse cloth and wage level of unskilled labour was much below that of the weavers and fulltime weaver did the weaving job as part time jobs. There was no vector wise improvement at all and countries like Portugal and India lost from trade. Still the theory of comparative advantage survived for long period of two hundred years. Because it is beneficial for some countries popularize this idea and diversify their consumption basket. The story of destruction of the renowned Indian textile industries dates back to the period 1881-1931. Deindustrialization can be defined as the movement of labor out of manufacturing and into agriculture. The brunt of deindustrialization within the country is different from the brunt of industrialization of one country on the secondary sector of the other country. Later is the case where rapid expansion of the cotton textile industry in Britain ruined indigenous industry in India. In Britain, industrial revolution was their own and destruction of handicrafts and loss of employment in the cottage industry was compensated by much larger employment opportunity created in the secondary sector. The traditional giant woolen industry felt little effect of the technological revolution as different measures of protection was used but no state help was rendered in response of the destruction of indigenous industries in India. In addition, cotton industry was relatively new industry and effect of the revolution was limited to the small section of the society and opposite was the case for India were the tradition cotton industry constituted enormous part of industrial sector. The visualization of this process of de-industrialisation can be seen through its adverse impact on the population dependent on cotton industry as shown in the data collected by the Buchanan Hamilton, of the large part of Bihar and north Bengal. He defined De-industrialisation as a decline in the proportion of the working population engaged in secondary industry to the total working population or a decline in the proportion of the population dependent on secondary industry to the total population. The estimate of population dependent on the industry includes two assumptions (a) that every spinners supports one person besides himself and (b) that every spinners support himself only. Based on the assumption (b) total population dependent on the industry in 1809-13 were 1,806,776 and this accounted for about 18.6 per cent of total population. The dependence of total population on industry in 1901 was 937,752 which accounted to just 8.5 per cent of total population. Thus it is easy to no tice that the decline in percentage of dependence on population was roughly about 10 per cent. Table 9 Industrial population in selected in Bihar districts around 1809-1813 District absolute no. of the population on industry Percentage of the industrial to total population Assumption(a) Assumption (b) Assumption(a) Assumption (b) Patna-Gaya 985,947 655,551 29.3 19.5 Bhagalpur 454,965,965 286,080 22.5 14.2 Purinea 874,860 587,860 30.1 20.2 Shahabad 446,775 287,285 31.5 20.2 TOTAL 2,762,457 1,806,776 28.5 18.6 (Source: De-industrialisation in Gangetic Bihar, A K Bagchi) Table 10 Population Dependent on industry in 1901 in selected Bihar District District absolute no. of the population on industry Percentage of the industrial to total population Unadjusted Adjusted Unadjusted Adjusted Patna 279,093 179,695 17.1 11.1 Gaya 287,732 187,016 14 9.1 Shahabad 346,400 228,051 17.7 11.6 Monghyr 281,325 155,439 13.6 7.5 Bhagalpur 222,796 115,618 10.7 5.5 Purnea 220,506 121,933 11.8 6.5 TOTAL 1,638,662 937,752 14.3 8.5 (Source: De-industrialisation in Gangetic Bihar, A K Bagchi) In period of de-industrialisation, the component of industrial sector which suffered most was cotton textile industry. The analysis of data collected by Buchanan Hamilton clearly shows the massive destruction of traditional cotton weavers and spinners. The population dependent on cotton weaving and spinning in 1809-13 was about 1,124,331 which declined to 148,716 in the year 1901. The per cent of population dependent on cotton weaving and spinning was 62.3 per cent and 15.1 per cent in 1809-13 and 1901 respectively. Therefore the decline in per cent of population dependent on cotton textile was about 47.2 per cent. Hence the extent of decline in the cotton industry was enormous as observed from massive fall in percentage of dependence on cotton textile industry. Table 11 Industrial population dependent on cotton weaving and spinning District Total no. Dependent on cotton weaving spinning Percentage of the industrial to total population Year 1809-13 1901 1809-13 1901 Patna-Gaya 379,396 64,154 58.0 34.8 Shahabad 194,625 25,258 67.6 11.1 Purniya 354,775 16,777 60.3 15.1 Bhagalpur 200,035 19,034 69.9 16.5 Monghyr 23,493 13.8 TOTAL 1,124,331 148,716 62.3 15.1 (Source: De-industrialisation in Gangetic Bihar, A K Bagchi) This created huge unemployment in the Gangetic Bihar. The estimation of weavers and spinners thrown back in the soil as referred by nationalist writer was about 10, 00,000 in Bengal and Bihar by 1828. The cotton industry which formed large fraction of industry in India was destroyed to the extent which could never be compensated for. British initially entered in India as traders. And with the establishment of East India Company in 1600 AD, they tried to acquire monopoly in trade of India. In 1765, East India Company got Diwani of Bengal i.e. right to collect tax revenue. As they got right to collect revenue in Bengal, Company ceased importing of gold and silver which was used to pay for goods imported by Britain. The demand for the cotton textile roused was curtailed by exceptionally harsh protectionist policy during the period 1700-1846. These measures supported an environment where innovation of the textile machinery could take place. The machine made fabrics out-competed handloom fabrics of India. In 1750, India exported mostly fine cotton textiles but by the third decade of 19th century it transformed into exporter of raw materials like raw cotton, Opium, indigo etc. Increase in the cultivation of raw cotton was basis for decline in the availability of food grains. Thus two hundred years long British rule ca n be characterized as a period of de-industrialisation, suppression and massive transfers which caused disruption in the path of development. 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All About the Ancient Roman Family

All About the Ancient Roman Family The Roman family was called familia, from which the Latin word family is derived. The familia could include the triad with which we are familiar, two parents and children (biological or adopted), as well as slaves and grandparents. The head of the family (referred to as the pater familias) was in charge of even adult males in the familia. See Jane F. Gardners Family and Familia in Roman Law and Life reviewed by Richard Saller in The American Historical Review, Vol. 105, No. 1. (Feb. 2000), pp. 260-261. Purposes of the Roman Family The Roman family was the basic institution of the Roman people. The Roman family transmitted morality and social status across generations. The family educated its own young. The family tended its own hearth, while the hearth goddess, Vesta, was tended by state priestess called Vestal Virgins. The family needed to continue so that dead ancestors could be honored by their descendants and connections made for political purposes. When this failed to be motive enough, Augustus Caesar offered financial incentives to families to breed. Marriage The wife of the pater familias (the mater familias) might have been considered part of her husbands family or part of her natal family, depending on the conventions of the marriage. Marriages in Ancient Rome could be in manu in the hand or sine manu without the hand. In the former case, the wife became part of her husbands family; in the latter, she remained tied to her family of origin. Divorce and Emancipation When we think of divorce, emancipation, and adoption, we usually think in terms of ending relationships between families. Rome was different. Inter-familial alliances were essential for garnering the support needed for political ends. Divorces could be granted so that partners could remarry into other families to establish new connections, but the family connections established via first marriages need not be broken. Emancipated sons were still entitled to shares of paternal estates. Adoption Adoption also brought families together and allowed continuity to families that would otherwise have no one to carry on the family name. In the unusual case of Claudius Pulcher, adoption into a plebeian family, led by a man younger than himself, allowed Claudius (now using the plebeian name Clodius) to run for election as tribune of the plebs. For information on the adoption of freedmen, see The Adoption of Roman Freedmen, by Jane F. Gardner. Phoenix, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Autumn, 1989), pp. 236-257. Familia vs. Domus In legal terms, familia included all those under the power of the pater familias; sometimes it meant only the slaves. The pater familias was usually the oldest male. His heirs were under his power, as were the slaves, but not necessarily his wife. A boy without a mother or children could be a pater familias. In non-legal terms, the mother/wife could be included in the familia, although the term usually used for this unit was domus, which we translate as home. See Familia, Domus, and the Roman Conception of the Family, by Richard P. Saller. Phoenix, Vol. 38, No. 4. (Winter, 1984), pp. 336-355. Household and Family Religion in Antiquity, edited by John Bodel and Saul M. Olyan Meaning of Domus Domus referred to the physical house, the household, including the wife, ancestors, and descendants. The domus referred to the places where the pater familias exerted his authority or acted as dominus. Domus was also used for the dynasty of the Roman emperor. Domus and familia were often interchangeable. Pater Familias vs. Pater or Parent While pater familias is usually understood as head of the family, it had the primary legal meaning of estate owner. The word itself was usually used in legal contexts and required only that the person be able to possess property. The terms usually used to denote parenting were parens parent, pater father, and mater mother. See Pater Familias, Mater Familias, and the Gendered Semantics of the Roman Household, by Richard P. Saller. Classical Philology, Vol. 94, No. 2. (Apr. 1999), pp. 182-197.